Operating Manual

Introduction to the overview of “Industrial Radiography”
Image forming techniques
Preface 13
1. Introduction to industrial radiography 15
2. Basic properties of ionising radiation 19
2.1 Wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation 19
2.2 X-rays 20
2.3 Gamma-rays (γ-rays) 21
2.4 Main properties of X-rays and γ-rays 22
2.5 Radiation energy-hardness 22
2.6 Absorption and scattering 23
Photoelectric effect
Compton effect
Pair production
Total absorption/attenuation
2.7 Penetrating power 25
2.8 Filtering (hardening) 26
2.9 Half-value thickness 26
3. Units and definitions 29
3.1 Units 29
3.2 Definitions 30
Radioactivity
Ionisation dose rate
Ionisation dose
Absorbed energy dose
Equivalent dose (man dose)
4. Radiation sources 33
4.1 X-ray tube 33
4.2 The anode 33
Cooling the anode
The focal spot
Effective focal spot size
4.3 Tube voltage and tube current 35
4.4 Radioactive sources (isotopes) 36
Natural radioactive sources
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Contents
Artificial radioactive sources
4.5 Advantages and disadvantages of artificial radioactive sources 36
4.6 Properties of radioactive sources 37
Activity (source strength)
Specific activity
Specific gamma-ray emission (k-factor)
Half-life of a radioactive source
5. NDT equipment 39
5.1 X-ray equipment 39
Types of X-ray tubes
Bipolar X-ray tubes
Unipolar X-ray tubes
Special types of X-ray tubes
5.2 High voltage generators 41
5.3 Megavolt equipment 42
The Bètatron
The linear accelerator (linac)
5.4 Radioactive sources 45
Average energy level (nominal value)
5.5 Source holders (capsules) 46
5.6 Transport- and exposure containers 46
5.7 Checking for container leakage 49
6. Radiation images, filters and intensifying screens 51
6.1 Radiation images 51
6.2 Radiation filters 53
6.3 Intensifying screens 53
Lead screens
Steel and copper screens
Fluorescent screens
Fluorescent salt screens
Fluorometallic screens
7. The X-ray film and its properties 59
7.1 Structure of the X-ray film 59
7.2 Radiographic image 59
Latent image
Developing the latent image
7.3 Characteristics of the X-ray film 60
Density (optical)
Contrast
7.4 Characteristic curve (density curve) 61
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